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Published: 12/13/2005
Updated: 12/13/2005
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Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and the British Public Schools

Shaun Hately

Story Summary:
The purpose of this essay is to examine Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, as presented to us in the writings of J.K. Rowling, within the context and traditions of the British 'Public Schools.'

Chapter 01

Posted:
12/13/2005
Hits:
1,805

Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in the Context of the British Public Schools

by Shaun Hately

August 2004 v1.1

Introduction

"My name was down for Eton, you know. I can't tell you how glad I am I came here instead."
- Justin Finch-Fletchley

The purpose of this essay is to examine Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, as presented to us in the writings of J.K. Rowling, within the context and traditions of the British 'Public Schools.'

It may well be asked what purpose is served by such an essay, and this must therefore be the first question addressed.

Briefly, let me first of all outline what is meant by a 'Public School' in this context, because the term has greatly different meanings in different parts of the English speaking world, most notably between the United Kingdom and the United States.

In the United Kingdom, the term 'Public School' is applied to schools that are independently financed - that is, their primary source of funding is private in nature, rather than from the government (Sampson, 1962, p.179). These are independent schools, largely funded by tuition fees levied on the parents of the students who attend the school. To people outside Britain, and particularly in the United States, the term may seem counterintuitive in many ways, but the term has a great deal of history and tradition behind it. Explaining these reasons goes beyond the scope of this introduction. It is simply necessary that those reading it understand the way the term 'Public School' is used.

It seems obvious to many people who are familiar with both the Harry Potter books and the institutional qualities of British Public Schools that J.K. Rowling has, to a greater or less extent, chosen to use the British Public School model in considering how she presents Hogwarts to her readership. It must be stated immediately that Hogwarts is not a perfect exemplar of the Public School tradition - while there is a substantial influence, it cannot be assumed that Hogwarts always follows Public School traditions. It is a unique school in many ways, but there are enough influences from the tradition that an awareness of the traditions of such schools may serve to enhance the understanding and appreciation of the school for some readers.

The incredible international success of the Harry Potter phenomenon means that a significant proportion of the readers of these books are unlikely to have any real understanding of the influence of Public School traditions on Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. In fact, the proportion of readers with a real understanding of such schools is probably quite small. The wide appeal of the Harry Potter books indicates that this lack of understanding is hardly fatal to the enjoyment of the books, but this doesn't mean that even a limited understanding could not increase people's enjoyment and understanding of the series. Hence this essay.

It is probably useful for me to outline my 'qualifications' to write this essay. Why do I feel that I can give people an increased insight into Hogwarts as a British Public School?

Please understand that I do not claim to be an expert on such matters. My interest in this area is purely amateur. There are many, many people better qualified to write such an essay than myself, and I would be quite pleased to see others do so. However while I am not an expert, I am probably better informed about such schools than the average reader of the Harry Potter novels. I have had a keen interest in such schools for nearly twenty years, and had the immense good fortune to be educated at a school that was founded on the British Public School traditions. This was one of a number of Australian schools set up in the late 19th Century, as copies of the British Public Schools. My experience may not have been entirely pure, but it was, at least, a fairly reasonably facsimile. And so I do understand the traditions and the history far better than most people do.

Also, as a child, I read a significant number of the 'school stories' set in such schools that were published in the United Kingdom in the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries. This is an absolutely huge literary genre consisting of hundreds, if not thousands, of novels that draw on the British Public School tradition. While the original traditions and practices themselves are of interest, and are the topic of this essay, the existence of this extremely large body of literature meant that an understanding of such schools (or at least various literary interpretations of them) was passed on to a far larger group of British (and Empire and Commonwealth) children than the relatively small number who actually attended such schools. Given J.K. Rowling's own educational experiences (Smith, 2001), it seems likely that most of her understanding of such traditions came through the filters of this body of children's literature. Rowling's novels contain many of the traditional elements associated with these stories (Kirkpatrick, 2000, pp.286-7).

Since I first became involved in the Harry Potter fan community, I have noticed on numerous occasions that a significant number of readers - most often, though not always Americans - have a very limited understanding of the traditions that Hogwarts seems to be built upon. This is certainly not surprising - it is very unusual for a book based on such traditions to enjoy such widespread success. In actual fact, I am often surprised that a book based on such traditions has been so successful, even among people who have no idea of these traditions. It is perhaps a reflection of the strength of other areas of J.K. Rowling's writing and influence that the books have been so successful despite their somewhat inaccessible setting.

The level of understanding (or lack thereof) shown varies widely. But, on occasion, I have encountered fans who believe that concepts like prefects and houses as shown in the Harry Potter novels are literary inventions of J.K. Rowling, rather than common historical features of the British Public Schools (which have, in many cases, filtered into other schools as well).

Because of this, in writing this essay, I have chosen to examine several of the concepts and traditions of the British Public Schools that are seen in the Harry Potter novels, either in a 'pure form' or in one that has been shaped by Hogwarts in particular. I hope that some fans will find this interesting. It is my hope that reading this essay will give those readers unfamiliar with the traditions and practices inherent in such schools, a greater understanding that will aid them in understanding Hogwarts.

Before continuing, I would like to make the following points.

No two Public Schools are completely identical. All have their own unique traditions and practices. In writing this essay, I will be focusing on points of commonality between such schools. It should not be assumed however that such points apply equally to all schools. This essay is based on generalizations. Specifics can differ widely. When considering Hogwarts in the context of such schools, this also applies there as well.

It should also be realised that a great deal of the material in this essay is historical in nature. While these schools often tend to put great influence on maintaining their traditions, they have changed over time. Many practices described in this essay are historical, and should not be assumed to accurately represent such schools in the modern day. By the same token, however, the maintenance of traditions means that some practices that seem extremely old fashioned to our modern eyes may still be going on in some schools.

Historically speaking, most schools were boys' schools. Girls' schools were rarer, and coeducation very unusual. For this reason, most historical studies have focused on boys schools, and in many ways, the traditions Hogwarts draws on are those most commonly seen in boys school. Because of the historical reality, many statements and quotations in this essay may refer to boys, rather than the coeducational reality we see at Hogwarts. No implication should read into this, beyond that of historical accuracy.

Historical Context

"You all know, of course, that Hogwarts was founded over a thousand years ago - the precise date is uncertain - by the four greatest witches and wizards of the age."
- Professor Binns

A thousand year history certainly makes Hogwarts a very old school, but several of Britain's Public Schools have a history of at least similar length. The King's School of Canterbury claims, with some justification a foundation date of AD597 (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.22). From around the time Hogwarts was established, the Wizarding World was gradually withdrawing from contact with the Muggle World culminating in the International Statute of Wizarding Secrecy of 1692 (Rowling, 2001, p.16). It seems likely therefore that Hogwarts had little direct connection to Muggle schools at any stage of its development. However we also know that from a very early stage in its development, Hogwarts took in some students with Muggle parentage (Rowling, 1998, p.114).

Historically the older public schools all developed relatively independently of each other. There was some cross pollination of ideas, but it was generally relatively informal. Hogwarts is not unique in developing independently - in this, it fits neatly into the public school pattern.

The question that is raised by acknowledging this is why, if Hogwarts seems to have develop largely independently of other schools, I am making an attempt in this essay to fit Hogwarts into the context of public schools. The reason for doing so is simple. The influence of the public schools on Hogwarts is obvious and self evident. The existence of the prefect system and the house system both of which developed in the public schools indicates that Hogwarts must have either been influenced by these schools or must have influenced them. From a literary standpoint, it is reasonable to suppose that the reason Hogwarts seems like a traditional public school in many ways is because J.K. Rowling used the tradition of school stories in literature to design her school. But such meta-analysis is somehow unsatisfying to many readers. People want literature to appear real in the sense that it should be internally consistent. We are shown a school of magic with obvious influences from our own Muggle world. Some of us naturally wish to find explanations for those influences.

In essence, as Hogwarts is shown as a school with public school traditions and a school with a history longer than many of the most famous public schools and rivaling the most enduring of such schools, it is a reasonable assumption to assume that Hogwarts was part of the overall evolutionary process of such schools. It was undoubtedly an unusual school from the time of its establishment, but it was close enough to the evolutionary process to show signs of having been influenced by it. The most obvious source for this influence is through the presence of children with Muggle parentage at the school from its inception. Perhaps if Salazar Slytherin had been allowed to have his way, Hogwarts would be even more unique than it is (Rowling, 2003, p.185).

It is now time to move onto discussing particular aspects of Hogwarts, and how these aspects have appeared and evolved within the public schools.

Prefects

"Erm - Harry - could I borrow Hedwig so I can tell Mum and Dad? They'll be really pleased - I mean prefect is something they can understand." - Hermione Granger

The existence of prefects at Hogwarts is one of the clearest signs of its influence from the public schools. Prefects are no longer merely a public school phenomena - they have spread into many other schools, but they were a creation - or perhaps it is better to say they were an evolutionary product - of the public schools.

Like many aspects of these schools, precisely dating the origin of prefects and prefect systems is difficult. Evidence of the existence of senior boys within the schools with formalized special powers - referred to by various terms including prefect, praepostor, and monitor - can be seen as far back as 1560 at Westminster (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.61). By 1668 at Winchester, the system was showing signs of real formality and tradition (Falkus, 1971, p.59). Prefect systems - giving senior pupils powers of discipline and control over their fellows - was partly a response to the very small numbers of masters (teachers) relative to pupil numbers in the schools of those times. Some schools had hundreds of pupils and only a handful of masters to control them. Placing routine discipline in the hands of trustworthy boys relieved the pressure on the masters. It was also considered to have the positive side-effect of reducing the prevalence of bullying, by giving older boys legitimate authority, although some have claimed that, in effect in some schools at least, this served to simply legitimise bullying.

By the late 18th and early 19th century, prefect systems, whether for good or ill, existed in most of the established public schools (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.61). The modern system however is often considered to be the invention of Thomas Arnold, Headmaster of Rugby from 1828-1842. Indeed, Arnold is often credited as the motive force behind the entire 'modern' public school system (Hardy, 1911, p.19). To an extent, this is unwarranted - Arnold was one of many innovators both at that time, and at other points in history. His influence was significant but it can be, and often is, overstated. He is symbolic of an entire 19th century movement of educational reform. He did reform the prefect system that existed at Rugby, and that did influence systems elsewhere - but the changes he made should be seen in the context of a constantly evolving system.

Hogwarts prefect system is a relatively typical system in most regards. It is slightly unusual in that it draws prefects from the fifth year onwards - in many public schools prefects are drawn only from the eldest pupils, but there are exceptions (Bamford, 1967, pp. 65-6). Prefects are typically selected (sometimes elected) for their powers of leadership, or because they are seen as exemplars of the qualities valued by the school, or by their own house (Lambert, 1968, p.153). They are expected to enforce the rules of the school, and are given disciplinary powers (Walford, 1986, pp.50-1) - in the case of Hogwarts, the power to take House points from their fellow students. Historically in many public schools, prefects had a great deal more disciplinary power - as late as 1966, 62% of public schools surveyed allowed at least some of their prefects to administer corporal punishment (Kalton, 1966, p.125). We also know that, at Hogwarts (at least according to some teachers) it is important that the prefect exemplifies good behaviour (Rowling, 2003, p.155).

In simple terms, though, the system seen at Hogwarts - with prefects chosen from among the senior students in each house, and given both disciplinary power, authority, and privileges because of their position is relatively typical. As is the existence of the even more exalted office of Head Boy and Head Girl.

Head Boy and Head Girl

"Now, yer mum an' dad were as good a witch an' wizard as I ever knew. Head Boy an' Girl at Hogwarts in their day!"
- Rubeus Hagrid

Historically this office has often been referred to as the captain of the school or the school captain. As most public schools were single sex establishments, there was no need for titles that included a gender distinction, nor was there much pressure to have two such offices. In most schools such power was vested in one pupil (Lambert, 1968, p. 155). The terms Head Boy and Head Girl however are not uncommon at coeducational establishments, and are not unheard of in single sex schools.

We have, so far, been given only a limited insight into the offices of Head Boy and Head Girl at Hogwarts. We know that it does not appear to be necessary for a person to have been a prefect to become head boy or head girl, as James Potter was Head Boy without having been a prefect (Rowling, 1997, p.45; Rowling, 2003, p.155). We know that, along with the prefects, they are given responsibility for the safety of their fellow pupils (Rowling, 1999, p.72), and that the Headmaster has little hesitation in leaving them in charge during an emergency (Rowling, 1999, p.122).

The offices seem to be associated with a considerable level of magic power and academic achievement - at least relative to the age of the pupils. Of the five students identified in the books as having held these offices, two - James Potter and Lily Potter nee Evans - are described by Rubeus Hagrid as among the best wizards he ever knew (Rowling, 1997, p.45); Bill Weasley holds a responsible position as a curse breaker at Gringotts (Rowling, 1999, p.12) and is successful enough that he can apparently ignore the conventions of normal wizarding dress (Rowling, 2000, p.59). Percy Weasley moves directly from school into what appears to be a fairly senior entry level position at the Ministry of Magic (Rowling, 2000, p.53) and, like his eldest brother Bill, does unusually well in his exams (Rowling, 1998, p.40). Tom Riddle, of course, went onto become Lord Voldemort (Rowling, 1998, p.242).

So it seems that at Hogwarts, the qualities wanted most for these offices is a reasonable level of power and academic achievement, coupled with the fact that they must be someone the Headmaster is willing to entrust with the safety of their fellow students.

Historically, it is probably this last factor - that of trust - that is most relevant in the public schools appointments of their school captains. These students, whatever their title, are expected to be trustworthy enough to act for the benefit of their fellow students. Their level of power and responsibility has often been far more than many people would expect to be entrusted to a mere student (Lambert, 1968, p.154).

The influence of the senior pupils - in particular those at the level of prefects and Head Boys and Head Girls - is often given prominence as one of the most distinct features of the British public school. Some have even given it credit as one of the defining characteristics of the success of the British Empire in the later half of the 19th Century and the first half of the twentieth (Wilkinson, 1964,p.viii). We have some indication that similar viewpoints may prevail in the Wizarding World from the existence of the book Prefects Who Gained Power last seen in the possession of Percy Weasley (Rowling, 1998, p.48).

Houses

"The Sorting is a very important ceremony because, while you are here, your house will be something like your family within Hogwarts. You will have classes with the rest of your house, sleep in your house dormitory and spend free time in your house common room."
- Professor Minerva McGonagall

Like the existence of prefects, Hogwart's house system is a clear indication of its influence from the British public schools. Like prefects, the house system was an evolutionary product of the public schools, and like prefects, it is something that spread into many other schools from the public schools.

The similarity between the concept seen at Hogwarts and that of public schools in general can perhaps best be illustrated by comparing the following quote to that of Professor McGonagall, given above.

"To many children in boarding schools the house is the focus of their lives, the small primary unit on which their immediate loyalties, hatreds, activities, and friendships are based." (Lambert, 1968, p.132).

Houses evolved in public schools primarily to deal with the problem of how to deal with large numbers of students. The early schools were often small enough that the Headmaster himself could be directly responsible for all of his pupils. As numbers increased, this became more and more impractical, and students began to be split into houses. The name came from the fact that to begin with, these were often houses in the town nearest the school (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.107) but as time went on, it became more and more common for the house to be located in the school, or even to become an administrative unit without a particular physical presence (Walford, 1986, p.116).

Hogwarts seems to have a fairly classic house system - the type that was common at public schools in the 19th century, although we have some indications that it may be of far greater antiquity (Rowling, 2003, p.184-187). Pupils are taught to regard the house as something close to a family, they live within their house, and they work within their house. Their successes or their failures reflect upon their house. Sporting competitions are organized along house lines. There are set locations within the school that are the provinces of the various houses.

As is the case at Hogwarts, houses in public schools are often (though not always) named after prominent figures of history, either national history, or the history of the particular school (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.249).

The personality and beliefs of the Housemaster (or Housemistress) have often been very important in setting the tone and practices of a particular house (Lambert, 1968, p.161). At Hogwarts, while this seems to be the case to some extent, the greater influence seems to be the continuing influence of the four founders. Each house is unique, with unique characteristics that it looks for in its members.

Within the public schools, this is often not the case. Some schools assign membership to houses more or less randomly. But in others, the housemaster traditionally has the power of selecting their own students and this has tended to give some houses at some schools, particularly unique flavours just as is seen at Hogwarts (McConnell, 1967, p.186).

So in this regard - having houses that have such a unique flavour with apparently such a long history behind it, Hogwarts does differ from the traditional public school model. But in general terms, the model does apply.

Teachers

"Professor Severus Snape, master of this school, commands you to yield the information you conceal!"
- Professor Severus Snape

By longstanding tradition, teachers in public schools are generally referred to as school masters or school mistresses, rather than mere teachers (Walford, 1984, p.115). While at Hogwarts, the more generic term seems to be in common use, the term master still appears to be used occasionally as seen in the above quote, and it survives as part of the terms Headmaster, Headmistress, and similar terms.

The appointment of teachers at Hogwarts seems to be virtually entirely in the hands of the Headmaster - at least under normal circumstances in the absence of unusual Educational Decrees (Rowling, J.K. 2003, p.275). Historically this matches the practice of the public schools where appointments were generally largely in the hands of the Headmaster of the day (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.190).

It is worth considering here, how Headmasters tended to make their decisions as to the appointment of staff members. Many readers might think it is obvious that certain Hogwarts teachers have had no formalized training as teachers. Historically speaking, this was quite common for public school teachers. Public school masters were regarded as professionals with knowledge based on a theoretical and esoteric knowledge within specific subject areas. Most public school teachers had no formalized teaching qualifications, instead relying on higher degrees (stereotypically a Master of Arts degree from Oxford or Cambridge) to prove they understood their subject (Walford, 1984, p.116). Large numbers of public school masters were themselves the product of public schools (Bamford, 1967, p.121) - something that seems likely to be the case for Hogwarts, if for no other reason, than there does not appear to be any other opportunities for people to acquire the education they need to become qualified in their specialist subjects.

Specific skills as a teacher, rather than mere knowledge of the subject being taught, were regarded as non-essential, though valuable if they were present. It was, more or less, assumed that pupils would learn if the teacher knew his subject.

Headmasters

"Albus Dumbledore is the greatest headmaster Hogwarts has ever had."
- Dobby

Historically, the Headmaster was the ruler of the public school - often very close to an absolute ruler. Some Headmasters were benevolent, some were tyrants. Many were both. Many have become legendary figures - Thomas Arnold of Rugby has already been mentioned, but others of note included Keate of Eton, Busby of Westminster, Butler of Shrewsbury, and Wharton of Winchester.

These were prominent men, often greatly respected - and Dumbledore seems to inspire similar respect in the Wizarding World.

The Headmaster of a public school was the fountain of all authority and power. The teachers took their power from him, and were responsible to him. The prefects derived their powers from his appointment. He had the final say on all disciplinary matters, and on all the routine day to day decisions of the school (Bamford, 1967, p.152).

Albus Dumbledore, as presented in the Harry Potter books seems to fit neatly into the mould of the great benevolent public school Headmaster. The one major difference is that, unlike many of the historically great Headmasters, he does not seem to be a clergyman - formalized religion is not addressed in the Harry Potter books (Honey, 1977, p.5).

Governors

"Dreadful thing, Dumbledore, but the governors feel it's time for you to step aside."
- Lucius Malfoy

While the Headmaster often had virtually limitless authority over the day to day running of their school, most schools had a group of trustees or governors with ultimate control to appoint, suspend, and remove a Headmaster. In the case of most well known schools, these tended to be prominent men - peers, bishops, and senior military officers were quite common (Bamford, 1967, p.130).

Lucius Malfoy's presence as a governor of Hogwarts fits neatly into this model, as does his description of the powers of the governors (Rowling, 1998, p.194).

Uniform

"Weasley, straighten your hat. Miss Patil, take that ridiculous thing out of your hair."

- Professor Minerva McGonagall

In common with most public schools, Hogwarts has a set uniform (Rowling, 1997, p.52). The arrival of a list with the clothing items required for school is a common recollection of public school students (Brooke-Taylor, 1977, p.166). Uniforms are a fairly recent development in the life of public schools, first appearing during the 19th Century (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.113). Early uniforms were fairly basic - over time they became ever more standardized. Uniforms served multiple purposes. They encouraged conformity but they also helped students to feel part of their school community. For students away from home in a new environment, this could sometimes be very helpful.

Punishment

"I've got the form, Headmistress, I've got the form and I've got the whips waiting... oh, let me do it now..."
- Argus Filch

A classic feature of the British public school, especially in literature based upon it, is the presence of the disciplinary system, and no discussion of the cultural contexts and traditions of the British public school can ignore this. By tradition, the most prevalent form of punishment in the public schools was always corporal punishment - the deliberate infliction of pain as a form of punishment.

At Hogwarts, such methods seem to have fallen into disuse. The old punishments have fallen into disuse to the disappointment of Argus Filch (Rowling, 1997, p.181). It is difficult to date when these forms of punishment stopped being used, our only possible indication is a reference to Mr Weasley still carrying marks on his body (Rowling, 2000, p.535) which suggests that this change is relatively modern.

The existence of milder forms of corporal punishment still figure in Harry's thoughts - he is worried he is going to be caned by Professor McGonagall after he is caught riding a broom when he was told not to (Rowling, 1997, p.112) - even if they are not actually in current use at Hogwarts.

While such punishments may no longer be in use at Hogwarts, because they may seem so extreme to many modern eyes it is worth putting these punishments into the context of what was actually used in real public schools. Hogwarts is not being presented as historically speaking, an unusually savage or brutal school. Very severe punishment regimes were quite common in historical public schools. Whole books have been written on this subject - a few examples should suffice.

Most famously, Moss of Shrewsbury once reportedly inflicted 88 strokes of a birch rod on one of his pupils (Bamford, 1967, p.66). Keate of Eton is known to have flogged 100 boys in one sitting (Gathorne-Hardy, 1977, p.41). Severe punishment lasted until quite recently in some schools. Boys were still being birched at Eton - held down across a block and struck across their bare buttocks - at least as late as the 1960s (Card, 1994, p.262).

In simple terms, what is described as having happened at Hogwarts historically seems no worse than that which happened at many other schools.

In essence, Hogwarts, though both a unique school and a unique literary creation, has obvious influences from real school traditions, and real traditions in school based literature. This essay only scratches the surface, but I hope it has been useful to some people in helping them to better understand how Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry does draw on very real traditions, and a very real culture.

References

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Brooke-Taylor, T. (1977). Manners Makyth Man? In The world of the public school. (pp.56-78). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd.

Card, T. (1984). Eton renewed. A history from 1860 to the present day. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd.

Falkus, M. (1977). Fagging and boy government. In The world of the public school. (pp.56-78). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd.

Gathorne-Hardy, J. (1977). The public school phenomenon, 597-1977. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Hardy, H.H. (1911). Public school life: Rugby. London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.

Honey, J.R. de S. (1977). Tom Brown's universe: The development of the public school in the 19th Century. London: Millington Books Limited.

Kalton, G. (1966): The public schools: a factual survey of Headmasters' Conference schools in England and Wales. London: Longmans.

Kirkpatrick, R.J. (2000). The encyclopaedia of boys' school stories. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate.

Lambert, R. (1968). The hothouse society: An exploration of boarding-school life through the boys' and girls' own writings. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

McConnell, J.D.R. (1967). Eton: How it works. London: Faber and Faber.

Rowling, J.K. (1997). Harry Potter and the philosopher's stone. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Rowling, J.K. (1998). Harry Potter and the chamber of secrets. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Rowling, J.K. (1999). Harry Potter and the prisoner of Azkaban. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Rowling, J.K. (2000). Harry Potter and the goblet of fire. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Rowling, J.K. (2001). Quidditch through the ages. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Rowling, J.K. (2003). Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Sampson, A. (1962). Anatomy of Britain. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Smith, S. (2001). J.K. Rowling: A biography. London: Michael O'Mara.

Walford, G. (1984). The changing professionalism of public school teachers. In G. Walford (Ed.), British public schools: policy & practice. (pp.111-135). London: The Falmer Press.

Walford, G. (1986). Life in public schools. London: Methuen.

Wilkinson, R. (1964). The prefects : British leadership and the public school tradition, a comparative study in the making of rulers. London: Oxford University Press.